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Most Important Reactions in Organic Chemistry

Here’s a compact list of the most important basic organic chemistry reactions (just the reactions, no explanations): Combustion: C x H y + O 2 → C O 2 + H 2 O \text{C}_x\text{H}_y + O_2 \rightarrow CO_2 + H_2O Halogenation of Alkanes (Free Radical Substitution): CH 4 + C l 2 → h v CH 3 C l + H C l \text{CH}_4 + Cl_2 \xrightarrow{hv} \text{CH}_3Cl + HCl Hydrogenation of Alkenes: CH 2 = C H 2 + H 2  → N i / P t     C H 3 C H 3 \text{CH}_2=CH_2 + H_2 \xrightarrow{Ni/Pt} CH_3CH_3 Halogenation of Alkenes (Electrophilic Addition): CH 2 = C H 2 + B r 2 → B r C H 2 C H 2 B r \text{CH}_2=CH_2 + Br_2 \rightarrow BrCH_2CH_2Br Hydration of Alkenes: CH 2 = C H 2 + H 2 O → H + C H 3 C H 2 O H \text{CH}_2=CH_2 + H_2O \xrightarrow{H^+} CH_3CH_2OH Ozonolysis of Alkenes: RCH=CHR’ + O 3 → R C H O + R ′ C H O \text{RCH=CHR'} + O_3 \rightarrow RCHO + R'CHO Dehydration of Alcohols: CH 3 C H 2 O H → H 2 S O 4 , Δ           C H 2 = C H 2 + H 2...
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Vestigial Organs in Plants and Animals: Complete Guide with Tables

Vestigial organs are fascinating remnants of evolution. They are structures that once served important functions in ancestors but have become reduced, nonfunctional, or repurposed over time. Both animals and plants have vestigial organs that highlight their evolutionary history. In this article, you’ll find comprehensive tables listing well-known vestigial structures in both animals and plants. Vestigial Organs in Animals Animals show a wide variety of vestigial traits — from reduced bones to unused muscles. These structures provide some of the clearest evidence of evolutionary change. Animal Group Vestigial Organ/Structure Function in Ancestors Current Status/Use Humans Appendix Cellulose digestion Minor immune role, mostly redundant Humans Wisdom teeth (third molars) Helped chew coarse plant matter Often problematic; impacted Humans Coccyx (tailbone) Tail for balance & mobility No external tail; muscle attachment Humans Auricular muscles (ear-wigg...
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All About Enzymes (Most Important Facts)

Enzyme :  Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts (biocatalysts). Catalysts accelerate chemical reactions.  Substrates and products :   The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products.  An enzymatic reaction in a living cell First discovered enzyme:   In 1833 Anselme Payen discovered the first enzyme Diastase, which is any one of a group of enzymes that catalyses the breakdown of starch into maltose. Different parts of enzymes:   The main two parts of enzymes are apoenzyme and cofactor.   1) Apoenzyme    Apoenzyme is the protein part of an enzyme.  2) Cofactor   A cofactor is the protein less part of the enzyme.  I) Organic part of cofactors:  I-a) Prosthetic group  When the protein less part of the enzyme is tightly attached with protein then it is called a prosthetic group.  I-b) Coenzyme ...
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